Which referring to a whole clause
A whole event can be followed by a comment about its result or effect. See how a comma and a relative clause connect the two ideas.
Read and practiseAdventure journal
English grammar
Understand English sentence patterns and verb forms with examples, explanations and exercises you can use.
Adventure journal
English grammar
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Needn’t have: an unnecessary action that was completed
Contrast needn’t have with didn’t need to. Identify an unnecessary completed action, use have plus a participle, and read context before deciding whether an action happened.
Read and practiseReporting claims with the passive
A claim can be reported without naming its source: compare an impersonal clause with a subject followed by a passive reporting verb.
Read and practiseThird conditional: imagining a different past and its result
Reconstruct an alternative past with if plus past perfect and would have plus a participle. Decode ’d, use could or might for different meanings, and recover the actual events.
Read and practiseReporting an earlier event with a perfect infinitive
A passive reporting verb and a perfect infinitive let you report a claim about an event that happened before the reporting.
Read and practiseMixed conditionals: past causes, present results and lasting traits
Connect an imagined past change to a present result, or a continuing trait to a past result. Choose the verb forms from the timeline instead of memorising one fixed pair.
Read and practiseReported speech: time and place changes
Reporting someone’s words later or elsewhere can change expressions of time and place while preserving the original reference.
Read and practiseProvided and as long as: attach a condition to an agreement
Set conditions with provided, providing, as long as and on condition that. Practise permissions, arrangements, optional that and the difference from duration.
Read and practiseWish and if only for the past: express regret accurately
Describe a past you would like to change with wish or if only plus past perfect. Practise negative regrets, had been doing and hope when the outcome is unknown.
Read and practiseReported speech without backshift
A past reporting verb can introduce a present form when a fact remains true or a situation is relevant now.
Read and practiseWish with would: ask for a change without confusing states
Use wish plus would for a desired change, repeated annoyance or lack of response. Contrast a wish about knowledge and notice when your wording sounds critical.
Read and practiseModal perfect continuous: may have been working
A light left on or a wet road can suggest an activity in progress earlier. Express possibility and deductions about a past situation.
Read and practisePerfect and continuous passives: been or being?
Distinguish has been repaired from is being repaired. Build past perfect and continuous passives, ask questions, and recognise a state that continues in the perfect.
Read and practiseWould have for unreal past outcomes
An earlier choice or missing opportunity can lead to an imagined past result; express outcomes and willingness that never became reality.
Read and practiseGet passive: got approved, got damaged and did it get sent?
Use get plus a past participle for events affecting people or things, especially in conversation. Form questions and negatives without assuming every event is bad.
Read and practiseWas to have done: plans that did not happen
A past arrangement can be described from a later point when it is clear that the expected event did not take place.
Read and practiseReporting verb patterns: admit, deny, suggest and persuade
Choose ing, to-infinitive or object plus infinitive after common reporting verbs. Report admissions, denials, suggestions and persuasion accurately.
Read and practiseActions on the point of happening
An imminent departure or an interrupted intention can be described from either a present or a past reference point.
Read and practiseNon-defining relative clauses: extra information and commas
Add information about an identified person or thing with who, which or whose. Use commas, retain the relative pronoun and recognise whole-clause which.
Read and practiseStrong expectations about an outcome
A crowded road or a question may seem very likely without being guaranteed; express that expectation with a compact verb pattern.
Read and practisePrepositions in relative clauses: with whom or who ... with?
Compare everyday relative clauses ending in a preposition with formal preposition-plus-whom or which. Keep the required preposition and choose the right register.
Read and practiseMandative subjunctive after demands
Formal requests and essential conditions can take a base verb in a that-clause. See how the pattern works with negation and passive forms.
Read and practisePerception verbs: see someone do or doing something
Describe a whole observed event or an action noticed in progress with see, hear and watch. Use bare infinitives actively and recognise passive was seen to leave.
Read and practiseWhether or if: choices inside indirect questions
Choose whether before an infinitive, after a preposition and directly before or not. Learn where if is also valid in an indirect yes/no question.
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